Population genetics is a central discipline within evolutionary biology that investigates how genetic variation is distributed within and among populations, how this variation is transmitted across generations, and how evolutionary forces shape genetic patterns through time. Unlike molecular genetics, which focuses primarily on genes, mutations, and regulatory mechanisms at the level of cells or individuals, population genetics adopts an explicitly collective perspective, even if it can also be centred in idividuals, but its core is that the fundamental unit of analysis is not the organism, but the population, understood as a group of interbreeding individuals connected by shared ancestry and gene flow, and study the similarities between the different genetic groups, normally is centred about what we call "the human specie".

Historically, population genetics emerged in the early twentieth century through the synthesis of Mendelian inheritance with Darwinian natural selection, note that some may argue that this disciple has much older origins. This synthesis was formalized by figures such as Ronald Fisher, J.B.S. Haldane, and Sewall Wright, provided the mathematical and conceptual backbone of what later became known as the Modern Evolutionary Synthesis. Population genetics thus represents the quantitative core of evolutionary theory, translating biological assumptions into predictive models expressed in mathematical and statistical terms.

The inmense luck we had in the last decades, is the availability of extensive genomic datasets—both modern and ancient—combined with rich archaeological, linguistic, and historical records, makes human population history an unparalleled natural laboratory for population-genetic inference, that had improved greatly our knowledge about both the past and presnt genetic groups, its transformations and migrations.

Particular attention i will devoted to my always loved Europe, one of the most intensively studied regions in ancient DNA research. Over the last decade, thousands of ancient genomes spanning the Paleolithic, Mesolithic, Neolithic, Bronze Age, and historical periods have been sequenced, allowing researchers to reconstruct demographic events with a temporal resolution that was previously unimaginable. These data have transformed long-standing debates about migration, continuity, and cultural change, replacing speculative narratives with testable, data-driven models and even so we show great predictions of the past were really correctly analyzed even with much greater limitations, often seeing how important can be the deep understanding of the different human natures and the correct intuition about the different correlation with its diverse genetics.

By the end of the day at least for me, population genetics not is as an abstract collection of equations, but as a powerful empirical framework for reconstructing evolutionary and demographic history and the correct understanding of the geneetic variability between groups. So i will emphasize both theory and interpretation: how models are constructed, what assumptions they rely on, what kinds of data are required, and critically, what their limitations are and doing ambitious implications of the different topics i will be treating in this articles.